·
Abt, Steven R., Donnell, Charles A., Ruff, James F., and
Doehring, Frederick K. 1985. Culvert slope and shape effects
on outlet scour. Transportation Research Record.
1017:24-30.
Abstract: Contained in this report are results of a flume study
that was conducted to evaluate the effects culvert shape and slope have
on outlet scour after 316 minutes of testing. A circular culvert was tested
at 0, 2, and 5 percent slopes. The scour hole characteristics of depth,
width, length, and volume were correlated to the discharge intensity for
each slope. The results indicated that an increase in slope subsequently
increased the dimensions of scour. The culvert slope significantly affected
the scour volume estimates based on prediction equations currently in
practice. Tests of circular, square, arch, and rectangular culverts were
made with full flow for 316 minutes. The maximum depth, width, length,
and volume of scour were correlated to a modified discharge intensity
for each culvert shape. Relationships were derived for predicting outlet
scour for each culvert shape. Composite representations were compiled
that correlate the dimensions of scour to the modified discharge intensity
independent of culvert shape. The results indicate that culvert shape
has a limited effect on outlet scour. (A)
Keywords: culvert
design; flume study; scour; culvert outlet; culvert
· Anderson, Lynette
and Bryant, Mason D. 1980. Fish passage at road crossings:
an annotated bibliography.
Abstract: A report of special interest to fishery biologists, resource
managers, hydrologists, and road engineers, this bibliography lists publications
pertinent to road crossings of salmon and trout streams. Topics include
bridge and culvert installation, design criteria, mechanics, hydraulics,
and economics, as well as their biological effects.
Keywords: culvert design; bridge design; fish passage; drainage crossing;
fishway; bibliography; annotated bibliography; salmon; trout; hydrology;
resource manager; road engineer; road crossing; fish passage; culvert
installation; culvert; bridge; bridge installation; culvert design criteria;
culvert mechanics; culvert hydraulics; culvert economics; biological effect;
fish habitat; habitat; forest engineering; road
· Anonymous.
1995. Forest road engineering guidebook (Forest practices code
of British Columbia). Province of British Columbia: British
Columbia, Ministry of Forests and BC Environment. 153 pages.
Abstract: The Guidebook provides current information and recommended
procedures for designing, building, and maintaining forest
roads. It is aimed at users who are already capable of carrying
out the technical operations related to road engineering, but who
require guidance on how to meet the requirements of the Forest Practices
Code of British Columbia Act and regulations. Culvert
related topics include site data requirements for minor stream
culverts and site surveys for bridges and major culverts. Culvert design
for corrugated steel and corrugated polyethylene pipes include
assessment of appropriate materials for a specific site, sizing,
and installation. Advantages and disadvantages of each material,
types of couplers, choices for headwalls, backfilling and compaction
procedures are discussed. In addition, log culvert design criteria and
installation practices are given in detail. Culverts
addressed here have a design discharge of less than 6 m3 per
second and a diameter of less than 2000 mm. Culverts larger
than this need a professional design. For forest road construction
it is recommended that unless soil and runoff conditions require
increased sizes, minimum pipe culvert diameter sizes should be 400 mm
east of the Cascade Mountains and 600 mm west of the Cascade
Mountains, and a minimum opening size for log culverts should
be 0.5 m in depth and 1.5 m in width. Options for determining
flow quantities for stream culverts at a recurrence interval of 100 years
to provide a benchmark of relative risk to be attached to
stream culverts for the passage of stream flow include procedures
for determining Q100 from site information. Additional road
design and construction topics covered in the Guidebook include road
alignment, clearing widths, design specifications, site preparation, ditch
construction, ford design and construction, inspection, maintenance,
and shutdown indicators. Procedures for field identification
of soils cover types of soils, size, consistency, density, and
compressibility.
Keywords: guidebook; forest road; road; forest road maintenance; culvert;
road engineering; culvert design; stream; stream culvert; installation;
headwall; backfilling; compaction procedure; culvert design criteria;
design discharge; pipe culvert; runoff; stream flow; flow; 100-year recurrence
interval; construction; road alignment; clearing width; shutdown indicator;
soil; cover type; density; compressibility; inspection
· Anonymous.
1999. Concrete Buried-Arch System Can Be Set Up Quickly.
Civil Engineering . 69(5):32.
Abstract: Concrete buried-arch system can be set up quickly.
Keywords: culvert
· Ashton, W. S.
and Carlson, R. F. 1984. Determination of seasonal, frequency
and durational aspects of streamflow with regard to fish passage through
roadway drainage structures. Fairbanks, Alaska. Institute
of Water Resources, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 99701.: 51
pages.
Abstract: Optimal design of culverts for fish passage for each stream
crossing requires the magnitude, duration, frequency and seasonal
relationship of the flow and the timing of fish movement.
Although previous studies have measured fish swimming abilities and culvert
water velocity profiles, there are limited studies in northern regions
of the hydrologic relationship among magnitude, duration,
frequency and season of discharge for the design of culverts
for fish passage. We analyzed streamflow records from 33 gaging stations
in south-central, western, interior, and arctic Alaska (from
watershed with a drainage area less than 100 mi.2 each)
to determine the highest consecutive mean discharge with one-,
three-, seven-, and fifteen-day durations, and the lowest consecutive
mean discharge with three-, seven-, fourteen-, and thirty
day-durations. Streamflow during three seasons were analyzed:
spring, April 1 to June 30; summer, July 1 to August 31; and fall, September
1 to November 30. The log normal distribution, using the Blom
plotting position formula, was used to estimate flows at recurrence
intervals of 1.25, 2, 5, 10, and 20 years. Multiple linear
regression equations were developed to predict flows from ungaged watersheds.
Significant basin and climatic characteristics for high flows were drainage
area, mean annual precipitation and percent of the drainage
basin with forest cover. Significant characteristics at low
flows were drainage area, mean minimum January temperature,
mean annual precipitation and percent of drainage basin covered by forests.
This report provides the culvert designer with equations to
predict flows, other than the instantaneous peak flow, for
use in designing culverts for fish passage. Two example problems are given
to show the application of these equations. (Author's abstract).
Keywords: fish passage; seasonal streamflow; roadway drainage structure;
roadway drainage; discharge; culvert; culvert passage; stream; stream
crossing; magnitude of streamflow; duration of streamflow; frequency of
streamflow; fish swimming ability; swimming ability; gaging station; Alaska;
United States; watershed; drainage area; low flow; drainage basin; temperature;
precipitation; culvert design; instantaneous peak flow; regional ; hydrology
· Aust, W. Michael,
Visser, Rien, Gallagher, Tom, Roberts, Tal, and Poirot, Matt. 2003.
Cost of Six Different Stream Crossing Options in the Appalachian Area.
Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 27(1):66-70.
Abstract: Permanent and
temporary forest bridges are an integral part of achieving environmental
Best Management Practices (BMPs) for harvesting operations. Within Virginia
Tech’s Fishburn Forest, five stream crossings have been installed to improve
access and to provide a demonstration area for continuing education purposes.
Approximately 1 mile of abandoned road was re-opened and improved, and
850 tons of gravel used to form the new running surface. In addition to
a number of existing fords, three new culvert crossings and five new bridges
were installed. These include a 70 ft low-water concrete culvert crossing,
a two-span 31 ft wooden stringer bridge, and three different types of
stress-laminated bridges. This article provides basic information regarding
permit acquisition and environmental considerations for stream crossings.
Location, design, and installation procedures for a variety of permanent
and temporary forest bridges are presented. Finally, an evaluation of
bridge installation costs, including materials, labor, and machinery requirements,
are shown for the various permanent and temporary crossing types. (Author’s
Abstract)
Keywords: Best
Management Practices (BMSs); stream crossings; harvesting; culvert; bridge;
cost ; road; analysis and assessment
· Barber, M. E.
and Downs, R. C. 1996. Investigation of culvert hydraulics
related to juvenile fish passage. Pullman, WA. Washington
State Transportation Center (TRAC), Washington State University.
Final Technical Report.
Abstract: Culverts often create barriers to the upstream migration
of juvenile fish. Fish will not travel upstream under high water velocity
conditions. It is hypothesized that low velocity regions exist near culvert
boundaries. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine hydraulic
characteristics of culverts with different flow conditions. Methods of
predicting flow profiles were developed by both Chiu and Mountjoy. Two
equations were compared to experimental results. The Mountjoy equation
proved to yield better results for velocity profile predictions. An area
of flow corresponding to a predetermined allowable velocity can be calculated
using the Mountjoy equation. This can then be used in the design of culverts
as fish passage guidelines. The following technical report contains a
detailed description of background information, experimental methodology,
the results of experimental tests, and an analysis of both the Chiu and
Mountjoy equations. (A)
Keywords: culvert design; fish passage; hydraulics; research methodology;
behavior; culvert
· Bartos, Louis
R. 1978. Peak flow hydrology in relation to bridge and
culvert design problems in southeast Alaska. Atlanta, GA.
Abstract: An overview of geomorphologic, soils, vegetation, and precipitation
in southeastern Alaska which set the stage for large streamflow amplitudes.
Strong relationships of drainage geometry and peak flow events enabled
development of sound hydrologic design techniques for bridges and culverts
on forest roads for southeastern Alaska conditions. Passage of extreme
peak flow events, structural safety, and maintenance of optimum passage
for anadromous fish at low flows were adequately achieved through hydrologic
design. (A)
Keywords: hydrology;
bridge design; culvert design; regional; culvert; road
· Bates, K, Barnard,
R., Heiner, B., Klavas, P., and Powers, P. 1999. Fish passage
design at road culverts: a design manual for fish passage at road crossings.
Olympia, WA. Washington Department of Habitat and Lands Program,
Environmental Engineering Division.
Abstract: This manual is for the design of permanent new, retrofit,
or replacement road crossing culverts that will not block the migration
of salmonids. The manual is intended for use by designers of culverts
including private landowners and engineers. The level of expertise
necessary to use this manual varies depending on site conditions and the
design option selected. For all but the no-slope design option (described
below), it is assumed that the designer has a basic background of
hydraulic engineering, hydrology, and soils/structural engineering
to accomplish an appropriate design. Formal fishways may be required
at some culvert sites to provide passage. The design of fishways
is beyond the scope of this manual though there is a brief description
of some basic design concepts included here. A fish passage engineer
should be consulted for additional assistance for the design of
fishways.
Keywords: retrofitting; retrofit culvert; road; road crossing; culvert;
migration; salmonid; salmonid migration; slope; hydraulics; hydraulic
engineering; hydrology; culvert hydraulics; soils engineering; structural
engineering; fishway; formal fishway; fish passage; fishway design; culvert
design
· Bates, Ken and Powers,
Pat. 1998. Upstream passage of juvenile coho salmon through
roughened culverts. In Jungwirth, Mathias, Schmutz,
Stefan, and Weiss, Steven, Fish migration and fish bypasses.
Chapter 14. 192-202.
Abstract: Roughened culverts were investigated for their use as upstream
passage channels for juvenile coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch.
Fish passage success through corrugated culverts as a function of culvert
roughness and culvert slope were evaluated based on swimming tests of
coho salmon fry. Fish consistently used the boundary layer of pipes
when challenged with high velocities. Moderate culvert-wall roughness
enhanced fish passage by creating a boundary layer used by the fish.
Large corrugation roughness can create excess turbulence that prevents
fish passage through the boundary regardless of the average water velocity
within it. Better models of turbulence and its relationship to fish
passage are needed. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: coho;
salmon; juvenile; migration; culvert; roughened culvert; upstream passage;
fish passage; turbulence; model; boundary layer; corrugated culvert; water
velocity; Oncorhynchus kisutch; juvenile coho salmon; culvert hydraulics;
swimming performance; behavior; hydraulics
· Beckers, Jos , Alila,
Younes, and Mtiraoui, Ahmed. 2002. On the Validity of the
British Columbia Forest Practices Code Guidelines for Stream Culvert Discharge
Design. Canadian Journal of Forest Research .
32(4):684-692.
Abstract: In the stream culvert discharge design guidelines of
the Forest Practices Code (FPC) of British Columbia (BC), the 100-year
instantaneous flood (Q100) is assumed to be three times
as large as the mean annual flood (Q2) regardless of
basin characteristics and location in the province. A regional linear
moment analysis of annual maximum flows is used to demonstrate that this
assumption is invalid and that Q100/Q2
ratios vary substantially with basin area and climate. For the snowmelt-dominated
peak flows in the Columbia and southern Rocky Mountains, Q100/Q2
decreases slightly with increasing drainage area, from 2.3 (1 km2)
to 1.9 (100 km2). For the flood peaks generated by rainfall
and rain on snow in coastal BC, this range is 3.12.6. In the semi-arid
Interior Plateau region, variability in Q100/Q
2 ratios is most dramatic. For a 10-km2 basin, the calculated
Q100/Q2 ratio of 4.9 is 1.6 times
the assumed factor of 3, while for a 1-km2 basin Q100/Q2
is 7.5 or 2.5 times this factor. Underestimating Q100/Q2
may lead to underdesign and early failure of road culverts, and therefore,
current FPC guidelines for estimating the 100-year instantaneous flood
may have serious adverse economic and environmental consequences in small
Interior Plateau watersheds. (Author’s Abstract)
Keywords: stream
culvert discharge design; flood; British Columbia; hydrology; culvert;
regional
· Behlke, C., Kane,
D., McLean, R. F., and Travis, M. D. 1993. Economic culvert
design using fish swimming energy and power capabilities. Fish
passage policy and technology. Portland, Oregon. Bates, K.
95-100 pages.
Abstract: Utilizing fish swimming power and energy capabilities and
the hydraulic properties of culverts in those locations within
culverts where fish actually swim, the writers have prepared
a detailed manual of culvert design procedures for culverts which must
provide safe passage of upstream moving, weak swimming fish (Behlke, Kane,
McLean, and Travis, 1991). The design procedures utilize hydraulic
formulae for profile drag, non-Archimedean buoyant forces,
and virtual mass force to quantify the hydraulic conditions within
a culvert that the design fish can sustain without exhaustion for various
time durations. Final culvert design may then be selected
on economic or other bases from the full range of trail designs
that are hydraulically suitable for fish passage. This paper
provides an overview of the analytical and biological methods used in
the preparation of the design procedures and its associated
software. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: fish
swimming power; fish energy capabilities; hydraulics; culvert hydraulics;
culvert design; weak swimming fish; non-Archemedean buoyant force; culvert;
fish passage; software; virtual mass force; upstream; safe passage; hydraulics;
locomotion
· Behlke, C. E.
1987. Hydraulic relationships between swimming fish and water
flowing in culverts. Cold regions environmental engineering:
proceedings of the second international conference: Edmonton, Alberta,
23-24 March 1987.
Abstract: Proper passage of fish through culverts is an important element
of design of highways, railroads and pipelines for the North. Though
several investigators have attempted to define swimming capabilities of
fish, it does not appear that the swimming requirements for fish to pass
through culverts and other fish passage structures have been properly
analyzed and defined.
This paper defines and analyzes the forces which fish are confronted with
in entering and passing through barrels of sloping culverts flowing full
and as open channels. The perched culvert receives particular analytical
attention. Power and total energy requirements are also defined
and developed for fish passing through barrels of culverts. The
methods of analysis are general and can be utilized for analyses of fish
passage swimming requirements through other types of fish passage facilities.
Field observations of Arctic grayling , by the writer and others at Poplar
Grove Creek, Alaska, are used as examples of potential validity of conclusions,
suggested by the analytical developments of the paper.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: fish passage; culvert; culvert passage; highway design; railroad
design; pipeline design; highway; railroad; pipeline; fish swimming requirement;
fish swimming capability; swimming capability; culvert barrel; fish passage
facility; Arctic grayling; Alaska; United States; fish passage swimming
requirement; regional; locomotion
· Behlke, Charles and
Braley, W. A. 1993. Fishpass: Alaska fish passage program
for culvert analysis. Version 1.0.
Abstract: Welcome to FISHPASS.EXE. FISHPASS provides the analytical
capabilities to identify a culvert or parallel culverts that will pass
weak swimming fish safely. The design procedure utilizes hydraulic
formulas for profile drag, non-Archimedean buoyant forces, and virtual
mass force to quantify the hydraulic conditions within a culvert that
weak swimming fish can sustain without exhaustion.
Before using FISHPASS.EXE, read and be thoroughly familiar with the "Fundamentals
of Culvert Design for Passage of Weak Swimming Fish," (Behlke et
al. 1991. Alaska DOTPF Statewide Research Report Number FHWA-AK-RD-90-10).
The required software data inputs and design results only will make sense
if you are familiar with the underlying theory, foundation, and assumptions
it explains. (Authors' introduction)
Keywords: fish passage software; FISHPASS; culvert; culvert design;
fish passage; weak swimming fish; swimming ability; Alaska; United States;
locomotion; analysis and assessment
· Behlke, Charles E.,
Kane, Douglas L., McLean, Robert F., Reynolds, James B., and Travis, Michael
D. 1988. Spawning migration of Arctic grayling through
Poplar Grove Creek Culvert, Glennallen, Alaska, 1986.
Final Report.: 166 pages.
Abstract: Specification of appropriate culvert design criteria for
fish passage has been a source of considerable, long-standing controversy
within the State of Alaska. In an effort to resolve this issue,
the Alaska Departments of Fish and Game and Transportation and Public
Facilities chose the Poplar Grove Creek culvert crossing of the Richardson
Highway located near Glennallen, Alaska, as a study site for a joint interagency
fish pasage study. During May 1986, the migration of Arctic grayling
(Thymallus arcticus) through the Poplar Grove Creek culvert was
studied. The highway culvert is 33.5 m (110 ft) long and 1.5 m (5
ft) in diameter. Under some flow conditions, the culvert's water
velocities (particularly at the culvert inlet and outlet) have exceeded
that reported as the sustained swimming speed of Arctic grayling.
The purpose of this study was to document the conditions that permitted
or prevented Arctic grayling passage through the culvert and to recommend
guidelines for fish passage thorugh this and other culverts.
Successful fish passage through the culvert ranged form 12% to 79%
at mean culvert outlet velocities of 1.94 m/s to 1.81 m/s (6.35 fps to
5.94 fps) and water temperatures fo 2.4°C to 7.1°C, respectively.
Weighted average water velociteis for the entire length of the culvert
barrel ranged from 0.91 m/s to 0.79 m/s (2.98 fps to 2.59 fps), respectively,
during this period. Water velocities near the culvert wall (the
area actually utilized by fish awhile ascending the culvert barrel) ranged
from 0.77 m/s to 0.73 m/s (2.53 fps to 2.4 fps), respectively, during
this period. Radio telemetry techniques for monitoring fish movements
through culverts were assessed and proved useful. Stream hydrology,
culvert hydraulics, water quality, and temperature and fish sexual maturity
data were collected and related to observed swimming performance.
Velocity distribution profiles were measured to further evaluate the "V-occupied
zone" concept (the zone used by fish during culvert passage.)
Previous fish passage studies have largely recognized only a fish's profile
drag as a deterrent to its passage through a hydraulic structure.
Accordingly, previous investigations have focused on water velocities
that fish may successfully ascend for fixed time periods. As a departure
from most previous fish passage studies, this investigation considers
the concept that fish may successfully ascend for fixed time periods.
As a departure from most pevious fish passage studies, this investigation
considers the concept that fish may also have to contend with adverse
horizontal pressure gradient and virtual mass forces. Such adverse forces
at the culvert inlet or outlet may restrict or block fish passage, even
in the presence of otherwise acceptable water velocities in the culvert
barrel. This study thus recommends that future design criteria specifically
consider and address the distinctly different power and energy requirements
for fish in the culvert inlet, outlet, and barrel. A preliminary
evaluation of the power and energy requirements for selected fish which
successfully negotiated the Poplar Grove Creek culvert in 1986 is presented.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: fish passage; culvert; Alaska; United States; Arctic grayling;
spawning migration; fish passage design criteria; culvert design criteria;
interagency fish passage study; Thymallus arcticus; sustained swimming
speed; sustained swimming speed of Arctic grayling; flow; flow condition;
water velocity; fish passage guideline; culvert barrel; culvert hydraulics;
stream hydrology; water quality; radio-telemetry; temperature; fish movement;
fish sexual maturity; V-occupied zone; recommendation; fish's profile
drag; horizontal pressure gradient; virtual mass force; culvert inlet;
culvert outlet; regional; locomotion; hydraulics; culvert
· Beschta, R. L.
1984. Road drainage structures: culvert sizing at stream crossings.
Corvallis, Oregon. 1-28 pages.
Abstract: Drainage structures are an important aspect in the design
and maintenance of forest road systems. Culvert sizing at
stream crossings involves several important variables, including:
1) peak flow estimation and associated recurrence interval as peak
flows are of greater importance in culvert sizing than is the total volume
or duration of flow, 2) design life of structure, and 3) risk
of failure during design life. Three general types of methods
for instantaneous peak flow associated with a given recurrence
interval are: 1) local evidence, 2) empirical formulas, and 3) flood frequency
analysis. An example of the empirical method is the use of Talbot's formula
to directly relate drainage area to culvert size. The type
and size of the culvert is usually determined by the characteristics
of the inlet. Other design considerations include gradient
recommendations, alignment to streams, organic debris, installation guidelines,
fish passage, and flow capacity requirements.
Risk of failure over the design life of the culvert needs to be specified
so as to be incorporated into the design of the culvert. This
can be accomplished by first determining the design life of
the culvert and the recurrence interval of a design flow that a culvert
can sustain without failure. Data in tabular format illustrating
the associated probability of failure for a culvert installation
once the above decisions are made is included in an appendix.
Local site characteristics often require an increase in designed capacity
to minimize the potential for failure.
Keywords: road
drainage structure; road; drainage; culvert; culvert sizing; forest road
system; forest road; inlet; stream crossing; stream; peak flow estimation
; design life; gradient; culvert installation; fish passage; flow capacity
requirement; organic debris
· Browning, Mark C.
1990. Oregon culvert fish passage survey. Vancouver,
Washington. Western Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway
Administration.
Abstract: This report presents the findings from a fish passage survey
conducted on various types of highway culverts. The survey includes
39 culverts located throughout the state of Oregon. To simplify
the findings, the report places the 39 Oregon culverts into four categories:
(1) pipes and pipe-arches with no special provisions for fish passage,
(2) pipes and pipe-arches with special provisions for fish passage, (3)
pipes and pipe-arches with natural stream beds, and (4) arches.
Based upon the survey, the report concludes that culverts with natural
stream bed surfaces provide the best facilities for passing fish.
The report, also, presents procedures and criteria for designing and installing
highway culverts that must pass fish. From the presented survey
findings and the recommended design and installation methods contained
in the report, the reader should, therefore, be able to resolve most problems
associated with designing and installing highway culverts to pass fish.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert; highway; highway culvert; Oregon; United States;
pipe; pipe-arch; arch; natural stream bed; fish passage; culvert design
criteria; culvert installation criteria; solution; regional; culvert
· Butler, M.
1986. PEAK/RISK/CULVERT: a program to compute peak flows, hydrologic
risk, and circular culvert sizes at forest road crossings. Roseburg,
Oregon. U.S. BLM, Roseburg District Office.: 1-37 pages.
Abstract: Describes the use of a BASIC computer program to aid the
hydrologist (and other specialists involved in water projects)
in the calculation of design peak flows, evaluation of hydraulic
risk, and selection of circular culverts. The program is written for
the sizing of circular culverts at forest road crossings, but may be extended
to other applications such as bridges, watershed management
projects, and other areas where the calculation of design
events and hydrologic risk is needed. A discussion of each subject
is included in the text, with instructions on how to use the program.
Example problems are used to illustrate the program.
The peak flow portion may be adapted to other locations were regional
flood frequency equations have been developed. The computational
methods are described briefly. For a more detailed discussion,
consult the references cited. (Author's abstract) Peak flow
estimators which utilize regression equations for estimating peak flows
at ungaged stations are the U.S. Geological Survey Method
and Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI). Hydrologic
risk is defined as the probability that one or more events will
exceed a given flood magnitude within a specified period of years. The
BASIC program calculates culvert diameter by the equation
D = (Q/Cq)2/5 where D is the pipe diameter in feet,
Q is discharge in cfs and Cq is a discharge coefficient, given in the
paper.
Keywords: computer program; software; hydrologist; water project; peak
flow; design peak flow; evaluation of hydraulic risk; circular culvert;
culvert; culvert sizing; circular culvert sizing; bridge; watershed; watershed
management project; hydrologic risk; flood magnitude; culvert diameter;
discharge; discharge coefficient; analysis and assessment; hydrology
· California Department
of Forestry. 1983. Suggested culvert sizing procedures
[for 50-year storm]. Sacramento, CA. California Department
of Forestry.
Abstract: Determining the proper size culvert under forest practice
rules requires estimating the volume of runoff from a '50-year storm'
and calculating the size of culvert which will handle that volume of runoff.
Several methods are available for determining the anticipated streamflow
from a 50-year storm. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages
under certain conditions. No one method is best in all situations, and
all methods, to some degree, require an evaluation of local conditions
to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the flow volume. Most methods use
some form of data averaging, subjective estimates of combined factors,
or a simplification of complex processes which reduces the precision of
the results. At best they are all approximations of the real world. Five
most frequently used methods for predicting stream-flow runoff are presented;
rational, California nomograph, magnitude and frequency, SCS curve number,
and slope-area method. Procedures, advantages and disadvantages, data
needed and examples are given for each method. A culvert sizing technique
is included
Keywords: culvert design; runoff; streamflow; culvert ; hydrology
· Campbell, Alan J.,
Sidle, Roy C., and Froehlich, Henry A. 1982. Prediction
of peak flows for culvert design on small watersheds in Oregon.
Corvallis, OR. Oregon State University, Water Resources Research
Institute.
Abstract: Forest engineers must frequently make flood frequency estimates
for very small watersheds when designing culvert installations. Empirical
formulae and simplified rainfall runoff models, the most commonly used
techniques to predict floods from very small watersheds, require considerable
engineering judgment to give reasonable results. As an alternative to
such methods, this study presents equations to predict peak flows on small
watersheds in Oregon. The equations were developed from 80 watersheds
ranging in size from 0.21 to 10.60 square miles. Oregon was divided into
six physiographic regions based on previous flood frequency studies. In
each region, annual peak flow data from gagging stations with more than
20 years of record were analyzed using four flood frequency distributions
(Gumbel, two-parameter log- normal, three-parameter log-normal, log Pearson
type III). The log Pearson type III distribution was found to be suitable
for use in all regions of the state, based on the chi-square goodness
of fit test. Flood magnitudes having recurrence intervals of 10, 25, 50,
and 100 years were related to physical and climatic indices of drainage
basins by multiple regression analysis. Drainage basin area (A) was the
most important variable in explaining the variation of flood peaks (Qt)
in all regions. Mean basin elevation (E) and mean annual precipitation
(P) were also significantly related to flood peaks in two regions in western
Oregon. Average percent error for all developed regression equations ranged
from 16.1 to 64.1 percent, the smaller errors being associated with the
more humid regions. Confidence limits developed for the regression equations
provide the engineer with estimates of prediction uncertainties over the
range of design flows. These prediction equations provide a better basis
for culvert design on small forested watersheds than rules of thumb or
empirical models
Keywords: flood estimation and control; culvert design; culvert installation;
prediction; watershed; regional; culvert; hydrology
· Carter, B. and Hodkins,
G. 2001. Unpublished work. Watershed drainage.
Abstract: Based on a 1981 U.S. Water Resources Council study current
methods to predict peak flows for small drainage watersheds
are grossly inaccurate. When current methods were compared to actual gauged
( true) flows errors ranging from 55% to 75% four underestimation
and 105% to 310% overestimation were determined. Clearly this
could lead to under- and over- sizing culverts. The costs associated with
materials is significant. However the cost associated with
flood event damage can be enormous. This study will gage 30 diverse watersheds
geographically spread across the state. Peak flow data will
be compared to current prediction methods and results analyzed. This
three year study will provide an indication of the accuracy of the models.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: drainage; water supply and distribution structure; water
resource; watershed; drainage; culvert; model basin; peak discharge; flow;
research project; hydrology; regional
· Center for Transportation
and the Environment. 2002. Aquatic organism passage at
road-stream crossings. North Carolina State University.:
39 pages.
Abstract: This search is in response to a request for research in progress
on aquatic organism passage at road-stream crossings. The
areas covered include stream simulation, culvert hydraulics, aquatic organism
movement or migration, baffles, fishways, culvert or stream
crossing design, and fish passage performance standards. The results of
the search are divided into sections on hydrology, culverts,
habitat and fish passage. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: hydrology; culvert; habitat; fish passage; website; database;
culvert hydraulics; road-stream crossing; migration; aquatic organism
movement; fish movement; baffle; fishway; stream crossing; stream
crossing design; fish passage ; fish passage performance standards; aquatic
organism; fish; road; stream; transportation; environment; hydraulics
· Cotterell, Elizabeth.
1998. Fish passage in streams. Brisbane, Queensland.
Queensland Department of Primary Industries, GPO Box 46, Brisbane, QLD
4001.: 42 pages.
Abstract: While there has been concern over the effects of dams and
weirs on fish movements, simple structures such as road or rail crossings
(which are not licensed under the Fisheries Act 1994) can also have significant
effects. A poorly designed or installed culvert can affect the fish
stocks of an entire drainage basin. These Guidelines identify the
potential effects that stream crossings have on fisheries resources, and
recommend ways in which these effects can be mitigated.
The information in these Guidelines is provided following consultation
with major client groups and research colleagues. This information
should be considered by those designing and /or constructing stream crossings
so that the passage of native fish may be facilitated. Further information
on design, siting or maintenance of stream crossings, or about the fisheries
resources of a specific area (e.g. where fish passage is an issue at all)
may be obtained by contacting any of the regional DPI Fisheries offices
listed in Appendix 1. (adapted from Author's introduction)
Keywords: Fisheris Act 1994 ; dam; weir; fish movement; road crossing;
rail crossing; culvert installation; culvert; fish stock; drainage; drainage
basin; basin; fisheries resources; stream crossing; culvert guideline;
culvert hydraulics; culvert slope; pipe culvert; fish mortality;
water depth; velocity; width; bottom roughness; slope; fish passage; barrier
· Cottman, N. H. and
McKay, G. R. 1990. Bridges and culverts reduced in size
and cost by use of critical flow transitions. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers (London), Part 1: Design & Construction.
88:421-437.
Abstract: This Paper describes an innovative concept for designing
channel transitions which will converge wide, shallow, sub-critical flows
into high-velocity critical flows. The flows are then passed through deep,
narrow throats that are cheaply culverted or bridged. The outflow is finally
diverged, spread and decelerated before being passed downstreams with
minimum head losses. These 'minimum energy' or 'maximum discharge' designs
were first used in Australia in 1961. They offer a means of passing large
flows through much smaller, more efficient and more economical culverts
and bridges, without the considerable upstream afflux that is the bane
of conventional hydraulic structures. The usual problems of erosion, siltation,
debris and energy dissipation are discussed, and shown to be either absent
or manageable. The concept is very useful in many instances, including
that of increasing the capacity of many suitable floodpain bridges at
minimal cost. Much experience is recorded, a worked example is presented,
and both appropriate and unsuitable sites are described. (Edited author
abstract) 6 Refs
Keywords: bridge
design; culvert design; flow capacity; flow velocity; cost and economics;
channel; surface water; culvert; road; hydrology
· Dane, B. G.
1978. A review and resolution of fish passage problems at culvert
sites in British Columbia. Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Department of Fisheries and Environment. Fisheries and Marine
Service Technical Report.: 1-126 pages.
Abstract: Culverts can have a major impact upon anadromous fish populations
by impeding or preventing upstream migration. Often, a culvert
may determine the extent of fish utilization in a stream and,
in an extreme situation, the presence of a culvert could exclude
all anadromous fish from a particular watershed. The success or failure
of a fish in migrating through a culvert depends upon the
swimming ability of the fish and the hydraulic conditions
present at the site. In general, culverts represent a streamlined, hydraulically
efficient flow channel in which velocities are maximized and usually constant
throughout most of the culvert length. This feature is in
stark contrast to a natural stream channel which provides
an endless variety of landscapes throughout its length ad width, thus
offering the fish a choice of routes that are suited to its swimming ability.
Through experimentation and observation, the swimming ability of salmon
and steelhead trout has been documented and from this it is
possible to determine the hydraulic criteria that must be
satisfied at the site to ensure that free fish passage is maintained.
However, as a delay of as little as one day can have serious
consequences for spawning fish, it is important that the appropriate
hydraulic criteria be maintained at the site throughout the
spawning migration period. This would normally require that detailed streamflow
records in the form of a hydrograph be studied and compared
with the fish migration period to determine the maximum and
minimum discharges upon which to base fish passage design,
However, do to the lack of detailed streamflow records for small streams
in British Columbia, it is therefore, impractical to apply
concise standards to fish passage design in most situations
and a more general system must be used. The "Recommendations
for Culvert Design" contained in this report are, therefore as et
of guidelines that, if incorporated into the culvert design,
should result in a facility that will permit the free passage
of fish under most circumstances. In addition, the design of
auxiliary fish passage structures such as culvert baffles and tailwater
control facilities are discussed in some detail and exampled
by drawings. Recommendations are also made for the installation
of culverts to avoid conflict with fish use in the stream during the
construction period. An outline of the procedure to follow for approval
of the project prior to commencement of the work is also included
in the report.
Keywords: culvert; fish passage; culvert passage; British Columbia;
Vancouver; Canada; anadromous fish passage; anadromous fish population;
upstream migration; barrier; swimming ability; hydraulic condition;
velocity; hydraulically efficient; salmon; steelhead; stream flow; stream;
flow; hydrograph; spawning migration period; hydraulic criteria; tailwater
control facility; barrier ; regional; culvert; locomotion
· Dasika, B.
1995. New Approach to Design of Culverts. Journal
of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. 121(3):261-264.
Abstract: The current procedures for the design of culverts are
reviewed. Experiments at LaTrobe University, Bendigo, Australia,
indicated that the head-versus-discharge relation under inlet control
is slightly different from what the design charts give. New generalized
relatioins between head water level and discharge are presented for inlet-control
conditions after fitting the experimental data. As the ratio of
end depth to the critical depth varies with the slope of the culvert and
the discharge, the practice of considering the critical depth should be
viewed with coution. The present investigation suggests that the
head water depth required to pass a given discharge through a pipe culvert
of a given size is much less when the pipe runs full with the tail water
level at the top of the pipe at the exit than the head water level required
to pass the same discharge under inlet condidtion. It is therefore
recommended that the culvert be designed to flow under outlet-control
conditions with the tail water level coinciding with the top of the pipe.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert;
flow rate
· Donahue, John P. and
Howard, Andrew F. 1987. Hydraulic design of culverts on
forest roads. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.
17:1545-1551.
Abstract: Design of drainage structures is an important part
of planning forest roads, which usually includes culverts. Determining
the appropriate pipe size for a given site involves estimation of expected
flows and evaluation of the hydraulic performance of pipes of different
sizes. In this paper a review of the hydraulic relationships applicable
to the evaluation of pipe hydraulics is presented. A computer model is
introduced that incorporates these relationships. The model is used to
compare two algorithms for computing headwater depths, given inlet control
(supercritical flow). The relative efficiency of four inlet types was
also investigated. Results indicate that potential cost savings exist
by altering inlet geometry and that computer- assisted design
can facilitate accommodations of conflicting design goals. (A)
Keywords: hydraulics;
road design and construction; forest road ; culvert design; modeling;
drainage structure ; culvert; research methodology; road
· El-Sawy, K. M.
2003. Three-Dimensional Modeling of Soil-Steel Culverts under
the Effect of Truckloads. Thin-Walled Structures.
41(8):747-768.
Abstract: Soil-steel culverts
have been successfully used as a cheap alternative to the conventional
steel or reinforced/pre-stressed concrete bridges. Current design codes
and researchers usually approximate the effect of live loads on such soil-steel
culverts. In this study, three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) analyses
of two existing soil-steel culverts are performed and compared to the
published theoretical and experimental results. The study shows that the
results of the 3D FE analyses for the thrusts compare well with the experimentally
measured ones with differences less than 30%. On the other hand, the FE
results for bending moments show less agreement which may be due to the
sensitivity of the bending moments to the accurate modeling of the properties
of the soil material. The study also shows that the effect of the live
loads extends for a very limited longitudinal length of the examined corrugated
steel culverts and validates the use long prismatic longitudinal geometry
in performing their 3D FE analysis. (Author’s Abstract)
Keywords: soil-steel
culverts; finite element method; live loads; three dimensional; culvert
· Engel, P. 1974.
Fish passage facilities for culverts of the MacKenzie highway.
Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Department of the Environment, Hydraulics
Division, Canada Centre for Inland Waters.: 1-33 pages.
Abstract: Most stream crossings on the Mackenzie Highway will be made
using large culverts. In many of these culverts, the velocities will be
too high for fish migration. A model of a culvert of circular
cross-section was constructed to design and test devices which
will provide regions of low currents so that the fish can travel upstream
during the spawning run. Care was taken to keep the losses
as low as possible. Three different design of fish passage
facilities were developed, called Spoilers, Offset Baffles, and Side
Baffles. Each design has been recommended for a specific range of flow
depth and culvert slope. The effectiveness of all three design
is inversely proportional to culvert slope. The maximum recommended
slope is 5%. Suggestions for application of the fish passage
facilities to elliptical and arch culverts are also made. Minor problems
are expected with debris and sediment. Ice problems could
be serious in the Side Baffles and some further consideration
of this problem may be necessary. (Author's abstract).
Keywords: stream; stream crossing; culvert; large culvert; water velocity;
fish migration; spawning fish; upstream spawning migration; upstream migration;
fish passage; fish passage facility; spoiler; offset baffle; side baffle;
flow; flow depth; culvert slope; culvert design; elliptical culvert; arch
culvert; debris; sediment; ice problem; culvert; hydraulics; behavior;
barrier remediation
· Genskow, John R.
1995. Fish passage in urban streams. Proceedings
of the 22nd annual conference: Integrated water resources planning for
the 21st century. Cambridge, MA. Editor Domenica, Michael
F. New York.
Abstract: This paper discusses fish passage criteria for culverts and
how these criteria were applied to planning a culvert rehabilitation project
along an urban creek. It also discusses how fisheries issues impact urban
'in-stream' drainage system maintenance and facility rehabilitation projects.
(A)
Keywords: fish
passage; fish; culvert fish passage; culvert design; culvert; habitat
type
· Hager, Willi H. and
Del Guidice, Guiseppe. 1998. Generalized Culvert Design
Diagram. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.
124(5):271-274.
Abstract: The features of culvert flow in a basic arrangement
are highlighted. Four fundamental flow types may be identified,
namely critical flow, uniform flow, gated flow, and pressurized flow.
A generalized design diagram is presented for the circular barrel that
gives the possible transitions between the various flow types. Further,
the lengths of free surface flows with a central pressurized flow portion
are determined as a function of the pipe Froude number. Photographs
of model tests illustrate complex flow patterns that may occur even in
a simple culvert arrangemnet. Of farticular relevance are chcoling
conditions and fearures of two-phase flow in a culvert. The effects
of friction coefficient, bottom slope, relative pipe length and upstream
head are detailed for free culvert outlet conditions. (Author's
abstract)
Keywords: critical
flow; uniform; flow; gated flow; pressurized flow; culvert ; hydraulics
·
Hetherington, E. D. 1974. The 25-year storm and culvert
size: a critical appraisal. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Pacific Forest Research Centre, Canadian Forestry Service.: 1-28
pages.
Abstract: The British Columbia Forest Service Coastal Logging Guidelines,
recognizing that adequately sized culverts at stream crossings
are essential for stream protection and maintenance of good
road conditions, specify that culverts be designed to handle the 25-year
storm. Because of insufficient precipitation and small-stream flow data,
realistic evaluation of 25-year storm flows is severely restricted
in most parts of the province. Hence, adherence to this guideline
is problematical at the present time. The main purpose of
this report is to outline the problems and severe limitations associated
with evaluating 25-year frequency peak flows by indirect methods.
The concepts of return period and risk are reviewed to clarify
what is meant by the phrase "25-year peak flow." Regional
differences in peak flow generation processes are then outlined to indicate
the need for different types of data and analytical procedures.
A number of techniques for evaluating peak flows are described
in detail to illustrate the extent and significance of data limitations,
to provide some insight into the techniques themselves, and to point out
relevant reference material. A second objective is to place
the role computed 25-year peak flow values in perspective.
Once a design peak flow has been determined, an appropriate culvert size
must be selected. Risk of culvert plugging and changes in runoff following
logging are additional factors to be considered. Suggestions
for selecting safety factors are offered and recommendations
are made concerning collection and analysis of required precipitation
and streamflow data. (Author's summary)
Keywords: storm; 25-year storm; culvert size; culvert; British
Columbia; Canada ; British Columbia Forest Service Coastal Logging Guidelines;
Canadian Forestry Service; stream; stream crossing; stream protection;
road maintenance; road; culvert design; stream flow; flow; 25-year storm
flow; return period; 25-year peak flow; peak flow; culvert plugging; storm
risk; runoff; logging; precipitation; culvert; regional; hydrology
· Hotchkiss, Rollin.
2001. Unpublished work. Broken-back culvert.
Abstract: The Nebraska Department of Roads (NDOR) uses a unique kind
of culvert termed broken back in situations of steep topography
where excavation costs would be very high to install a traditional culvert.
The researchers developed a computer software called Broken-Back
Culvert Analysis Program (BCAP) to evaluate the hydraulic performance
of these culverts. However, 4%-5% of the time when extreme
conditions are being evaluated, an error occurs. This supplement
would be to debug the program, periodically upgrade it and provide maintenance.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert; topography; excavation; cost; software; computer;
hill; research project; broken back culvert; analysis and assessment;
regional
· Jones, J. S.
1999. Unpublished work. Hydraulics of slope-tapered concrete
pipe culverts.
Abstract: The objective of this research project is to verify the hydraulic
design details of slope tapered pipe culverts. The results
of the research show that both the slope tapered inlet configuration and
the typical precast concrete pipe apron (IDOT) Standard Road
Plant RF-3) are more hydraulically efficient than assumed. Also, in the
slope taper section, the number of reducer sections required
in IDOT' s design guidelines can be decreased by one reducer
without adversely affecting hydraulic efficiency of the inlet. In general,
the research verified assumptions in IDOT's design guidelines
for slope tapered concrete culverts. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: concrete pipe; culvert; hydraulic structure; slope; research
project; hydrology; hydraulics
· Jordan, Mark C. and
Carlson, Robert F. 1987. Design of depressed invert culverts.
Fairbanks, Alaska. Water Research Center, Institute of Northern
Engineering, University of Alaska-Fairbanks. Final Report.:
71 pages.
Abstract: This report discusses the hydraulic performance of depressed
invert culverts with inlet control and set flush to a vertical headwall.
The models presented in this report may be used to calculate hydraulic
capacity, barrel losses and velocity profiles within the culvert.
However, the designer must keep in mind that the models are based on specific
conditions that may not be applicable to all situations. Additional
research should be conducted with different culvert inlet configurations,
outlet control conditions and culvert bed materials typical of what is
used in Alaska in order to refine the presented modeling.
Research is currently being conducted on the swimming abilities of fish
passing through culverts. This research, in conjuction with the
ability to predict the hydraulic capacity and velocity profiles, will
allow the designer to determine the suitability of a depressed invert
culvert for fish passage. (Author's implementation)
Keywords: culvert; depressed invert culvert; culvert hydraulics; hydraulic
capacity; model; barrel loss; velocity profile; culvert inlet configuration;
outlet control condition; culvert bed material; Alaska; United States;
fish passage; culvert passage; swimming ability; fish swimming ability;
locomotion; hydraulics; culvert; regional
· Kane, D. and Wellen,
P. M. 1985. Appendix to:a hydraulic evaluation of fish
passage through roadway culverts in Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska.
Water Center/Institute of Northern Engineering. Final.:
1-240
Abstract: A culvert is a very simple hydraulic structure. However,
because the engineer must design for peak flows passing through
the culvert while fish are trying to move upstream serious
problems arise. Almost all culvert installations in interior and northern
Alaska were casually examined, with approximately 100 examined in detail
where hydraulic problems existed that may retard fish passage.
Data from the field program are included in an appendix to
this report. The two major hydraulic problems in regard to fish passage
were high velocities and perching: inlet drops caused by deposited sediment,
aufeis, alignment of culvert with stream, and non-uniform
culvert slopes are some of the other fish passage deterrents
that were observed. Also, all known baffled structures were evaluated.
Numerous recommendations were made that should improve the hydraulic conditions
that exist at a culvert relative to fish passage. Also, it
is recommended that further studies be carried out to evaluate
the swimming performance of the native fish. Present design
criteria are based on very limited studies. Lastly, it is recommended
that the concept of the velocity in the occupied zone (area
in culvert where fish swim) be considered as the culvert design
velocity for fish passage in place of the previously used average cross-sectional
velocity. (Author's abstract) The appendix includes field
methods with data sheet example for determining prevailing
conditions at culvert sites regarding fish passage. Specific data for
each site is given in the form of plan view design, water
velocity profile, photographs, narrative, and site location.
Approximately 100 sites are covered.
Keywords: culvert; hydraulic structure; engineer; peak flow; flow;
fish passage; fish; culvert passage; upstream migration; fish movement;
culvert installation; Alaska; United States; hydraulic problem; culvert
inlet; high velocity; perching; sediment; deposited sediment; aufeis;
culvert alignment; stream; culvert slope; baffle; baffled structure; hydraulic
condition; swimming performance; native fish; velocity; swimming performance
of native fish; culvert design; culvert design criteria; cross-sectional
velocity; field method; water velocity profile; regional; culvert; locomotion
· Kane, Douglas L. and
Wellen, Paula W. 1985. Fish passage design criteria for
culverts. Fairbanks, Alaska. Institute of Water Resources/Engineering
Experiment Station, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Abstract: Ideally, culverts are designed to pass an instantaneous peak
flow of a specified return period. This design should not prevent
fish from migrating upstream through the culvert. When fish are
delayed, it is desirable to keep this delay to a minimum to prevent harmful
effects to the fish population. The present design criterion assumes
that fish can withstand some delays, but they must eventually be able
to swim upstream through a culvert against the mean velocity that results
from mean annual flood. Theoretically, the return period for a mean
annual flood is slightly greater than two years, while the design flow
for a culvert may be 5, 10, 25 or even 50 years depending upon the type
of structure. We discuss the limitations of the above design criterion,
particularly the methodology of using mean velocity. We propose
a more realistic approach using the velocity that exists in the occupied
zone (the area of the culvert where fish generally swim when migrating
upstream). This zone is located along the outside boundary where
the lowest velocities in the cross section are found. (Author's
abstract)
Keywords: culvert; instantaneous peak flow; upstream migration; fish
population; culvert design criteria; mean velocity; culvert passage; upstream
culvert passage; mean annual flood; limitations of culvert design criteria;
occupied zone; outside boundary; velocity; water velocity; hydrology;
fish passage
· Katopodis, Chris.
1993. Fish passage at culvert highway crossings. Highways
and the Environment. Charlottetown.
Abstract: Culverts, often used when highways cross rivers and streams,
are usually designed to maintain fish migrations. Fish, migrating
upstream to spawn, feed or meet other life cycle requirements, provide
challenges to culvert design and installation. In many cases, ensuring
no net loss of fish habitat is of prime concern. New approaches
to locating, designing and placing culverts have evolved to meet these
challenges. Frequently, culverts are placed below stream bed or
special devices are attached to the culvert floor to aid fish passage.
Hydraulic design in these cases needs special attention. Recent
investigations, through hydraulic modelling, field observation and analysis
of fish swimming speeds, provide ways to establish rational design procedures.
Hydraulic modelling results in several culvert fishways yield design curves
for discharge, depth and velocities; fish swimming abilities and behaviour
set limits for water velocities; fish migration timing combines with stream
hydrology to guide the selection of design flows. The issue of fish
passage raises the environmental awareness of all concerned while providing
them with the tools needed to address it. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert
; highway; river; stream; fish migration; upstream migration; spawning;
feeding; life cycle requirement; culvert design; culvert installation;
fish habitat; fish passage; culvert hydraulics; hydraulics; hydraulic
design; hydraulic modelling; culvert fishway; discharge; depth;
velocity; fish swimming ability; fish swimming behaviour; water velocity;
stream hydrology; culvert; behavior
· Keller, Gordon.
1983. Unpublished work. Low water crossings (Selection, design,
and construction of low water crossings). 24p.
Abstract: Types of low water crossings are enumerated and described.
Tradeoffs among culverts, bridges, and fords are described. Determination
of design flows, culvert design, Manning's equation, scour conditions,
and riprap design are briefly discussed. Bridge site examination form
(R5-7700-71, rev 7/75), nomographs for computing flood discharge in California,
solution of Manning's equation, headwater depth for CMP culverts and arch
culverts, and a chart for size of stone that will resist displacement
for various velocities and side slopes are included. A section on soil
filter design is also attached. (C)
Keywords: low water crossing; stream crossing; road; culvert;
hydraulics
· King County.
1990. Culvert and bridge design criteria. In: King
county surface water design manual. 4.3.5~1-4.3.5~16 pages.
Abstract: Procedures are presented to provide for the analysis of both
inlet and outlet control conditions to determine which of
those two conditions are governing flow capacity. Design criteria
for headwater elevation, inlet and outlet control of culvert flow are
presented in the form of lists. Tables of constants for control
equations and nomographs for headwater elevation for inlet
or outlet control for use in flow analysis are included. Methods
of analysis required to provide for fish passage/migration are given in
the form of criteria. Estimating procedures for flow in ungaged
streams and design criteria and analysis methods for bridges
are also included.
Keywords: culvert; bridge; culvert design; bridge design; culvert inlet;
culvert outlet; flow; culvert design criteria; flow capacity; fish passage;
fish migration; stream; ungaged stream; culvert; roat; regional
· Kuntze, E.
1982. Northern Elbe culvert. Water Science Technology.
114:263-268.
Abstract: The entire drainage system of Hamburg, Germany is being
reorganized and renovated by the construction of large-diameter sewer
pipes. Part of this scheme includes a culvert under the northern Elbe
River. The problem is sedimentation of solid matter in a sewerage culvert
in the presence of widely variable flows. The matching of the discharge
cross section and the hydrograph curve of the discharge amount to assure
minimal sedimentation could be achieved by a constantly changing profile
geometry. The Elbe culvert will have an air cushion, created by pumping
air into the culvert pipe between the bulkhead walls so that a large air
pocket is formed over the entire length of the pipe. The discharge area
can be varied by changing the air pocket, thus varying the flow speed
and sedimentation rate. The Northern Elbe culvert will be opened for sewerage
operation in the summer of 1981
Keywords: drainage
design; drainage; drainage crossing; culvert hydraulics; culvert;
hydraulics; regional
· McClellan, T. J.
1970. Fish passage through highway culverts. Portland,
Oregon. U.S. Dep. Trans., Fed. Highw. Adm. and Oreg. State Game
Comm.: 16 pages.
Abstract: A review of 62 culverts installed by several agencies in
Oregon was made (1) to determine effectiveness of installation to pass
fish and (2) to evaluate which types were most effective, simplest to
install, and least expensive to install and maintain. Review included
round pipe, single and double culverts with baffles or other special devices,
plated arches (with both open and closed bottoms), and a few nonculvert
installations. The author concluded that stream condition at inlet
and outlet may override design in importance. Controlling factors
for fish passage were velocity, length, slope, and headwater and tailwater
conditions. Description of culverts reviewed, problems, and comments
on fish passage are given. Evaluation forms with photographs are
provided in the appendix.
Keywords: culvert evaluation form; culvert; culvert installation; Oregon;
United States; fish passage; cost-analysis; culvert economics; round pipe
culvert; single culvert; double culvert; baffle; plated arch; nonculvert
installation; stream condition; inlet; outlet; culvert design; velocity;
length; slope; headwater condition; tailwater condition; fish passage
problem; regional
· McGrath, T. J., Moore,
I. D., Selig, E. T., Webb, M. C. , and Taleb, B. 2002. Design
Examples for Large-Span Culverts: Supporting Material for NCHRP Report
473.
Abstract: Gives specific examples, with mathematical calculations,
for design metal or concrete culverts of varying dimensions.
Keywords: culvert; culvert design; metal culverts; concrete culverts;
calculations
· Metsker, H. E.
1970. Fish versus culverts: Some considerations for resource
managers. Washington, D.C. Technical Information Center,
Division of Engineering, USDA Forest Service. Technical report.:
1-19 pages.
Abstract: A culvert designed to hydrologically and hydraulically pass
the stream flow through a fill may not be acceptable for fish
passage. The most common culvert installation practice is
to reduce the channel cross sectional area, effectively decreasing
the channel width resulting in an increase in velocity through the channel.
Fishery restriction problems may come from the wall effect,
water turbulence, inadequate stimulus to the fish or outfall
barriers. Manipulation of the channel for passing fish can be
accomplished by methods which raise the stream gradient necessary for
fish passage. Those methods may include the addition of downstream
weirs, cribs or low head dams. Stacked culverts in elevated
stages may be used in streams that experience a wide flow
range. Place baffles in existing culverts to reduce velocities in the
culvert and provide resting areas for fish. The effects of
light intensity changes that may cause a deterrent to movements
of fish populations may be reduced by planting riparian vegetation. In
areas with unstable stream beds it may become necessary to
provide desilters, gradient control structures, or a bedload
catcher upstream from the culvert location. In addition, physical
requirements of fish habitat such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen
and swimming ability of the fish species of concern must be
considered. Many of the recommendations to facilitate fish
passage may increase the total cost on new construction to the point that
the arch or bridge will be competitive.
Keywords: culvert; culvert design; hydrology; hydraulics; culvert hydraulics;
stream flow; flow; stream; fish; fish passage; culvert installation; velocity;
channel; fishery restriction problem; wall effect; water turbulence; inadequate
stimulus; outfall barrier; barrier; channel manipulation; stream gradient;
weir; downstream weir; crib; lowhead dam; dam; stacked culvert; baffle;
fish population; water temperature; fish habitat; habitat; bridge; arch;
fish swimming ability; fish species; dissolved oxygen; light intensity;
hydraulics; road; locomotion; culvert
· Normann, Jerome M.,
Houghtalen, Robert J., and Johnson, William J. 1985. Hydraulic
design of highway culverts. McLean, VA. Turner-Fairbank
Highway Research Center, Office of Implementation. Hydraulic
Design Series . 5
Abstract: Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 combines culvert design information
previously contained in Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) No. 5, No.
10, and No. 13 with hydrologic, storage routing, and special culvert design
information. The result is a comprehensive culvert design publication.
Hydrologic analysis methods are described, and references cited. Culvert
design methods are presented for both conventional culverts and culverts
with inlet improvements. Storage routing techniques are included which
permit the designer to account for ponding effects upstream of the culvert.
Unique culvert applications, erosion and sediment control, debris control,
structural aspects, and long span culverts are discussed and references
cited. Inlet control, outlet control, and critical depth design charts,
many of which are newly developed, are included for a variety of culvert
sizes, shapes, and materials. New dimensionless culvert design charts
are provided for the design of culverts lacking conventional design nomographs
and charts. The appendices of the publication contain the equations and
methodology used to construct the design charts, information of the hydraulic
resistance of culverts, and methods of optimizing culvert design using
performance curves and inlet depression. Calculation forms are provided
for most of the design methodologies in the manual.(A)
Keywords: hydraulic design; culvert - highway; hydrologic analysis;
culvert design; hydrologic design; culvert
· Piehl, Bradley T.,
Beschta, Robert L., and Pyles, Marvin R. 1988. Ditch-relief
culverts and low-volume forest roads in the Oregon Coast Range.
Northwest Science. 62:91-98.
Abstract: Drainage systems associated with gravel-surfaced roads
often rely on culverts for moving water through the road prism and for
minimizing onsite erosion. The purpose of this study was to determine
the characteristics and functional capabilities of ditch relief culverts
(DRC's) in the Coast Range of western Oregon. Five hundred and fifteen
DRC's were evaluated to determine diameter and length, spacing, inlet
conditions, skew angle, slope, and outlet erosion. Most DRC's (86%) were
corrugated steel pipe. Pipe diameters were typically 38.1 or 45.7 cm (15
or 18 in.); average length was 10.7 m (35.1 ft.). Cross- sectional area
of 74 percent of the inlets had been reduced by sediment deposition, pipe
damage, cutbank sloughing, or organic debris; the inlet area of all DRC
culverts averaged 81 percent of original. Spacing of DRC's varied by ownership
category, with averages of 2.6 to 5.2 DRC's per km (4.2 to 8.4 per mi).
Ditch erosion was minimal except with relatively long culvert spacing.
Erosion at culvert outlets increased with culvert spacing
Keywords: drainage
crossing; drainage structure; gravel road; ditch-relief culvert; culvert
design; road drainage; regional; road; culvert
· Piehl, Bradley T.,
Pyles, Marvin R., and Beschta, Robert L. 1988. Flow capacity
of culverts on Oregon Coast Range forest roads. Water Resources
Bulletin. 24(3):-631-637.
Abstract: One hundred twenty-eight stream-crossing culverts in
the central Oregon Coast Range were evaluated for peak flow capacity and
were compared with current design guidelines. Their ability to pass the
25-year peak flow, as mandated by Oregon State Forest Practice Rules,
and their maximum flow capacity were determined. Over 40 percent of the
culverts were unable to pass the 25-year peak flow at a headwater to diameter
ratio of 1. About 17 percent could not pass the 25-year peak flow without
headwater overtopping the roadfill. Installing the next larger pipe size
at an additional original installation cost of about 14 percent would
have allowed nearly all these culverts to pass the 25-year peak flow.
Culvert capacity varied with ownership and watershed size. (A)
Keywords: flow
capacity; forest road; culvert installation; regional; hydrology; culvert;
legal and regulatory
· Powers, Patrick D.
P. E. 1996. Culvert hydraulics related to upstream juvenile
salmon passage. Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife,
Habitat Program. Draft Report.
Abstract: A study was performed by the Washington Department of Fish
and Wildlife (WDFW) in cooperation with the Washington State Department
of Transportation (WSDOT) to determine the culvert characteristics that
allow upstream passage of juvenile coho salmon. The purpose of the
study was to investigate the premise that small fish (60 to 90 mm fork
length) would use the low velocity boundary layer near the wall of a roughened
pipe to pass upstream. The study objectives were
to 1) determine if fish would use the low velocity boundary layer of a
roughened pipe to pass upstream and compare this to passage through a
smooth pipe, and 2) explore relationships between velocities and turbulence
in the boundary layer to passage success. Once the hydraulic conditions
which provide optimal passage are determined, a hydrologic analysis for
determining passage design flows for juvenile fish will be initiated by
WDFW. The tests consisted of placing the fish
in culverts with roughness and slope. Fish were counted as they
passed, held or failed. To meet the first objective, upstream passage
success was compared to the maximum velocity (Vmax) in the
culvert. For the second objective, two variables were compared to
passage success; 1) the velocity in the zone the fish occupied while attempting
to pass (Vocc), and 2) the effective width in the boundary
layer of the migration area (We). A simple linear regression
model relating Vmax to percent passage showed that velocities
for the 80 percent passage level were 1.3 and 2.0 feet per second (fps)
for the coho fry and fingerlings respectively. A major finding of
the study was that turbulence in the boundary layer actually created a
blockage to fish. For the tests with higher velocities, passage
success was higher for the smooth pipe. (Author's introduction)
Keywords: culvert characteristic; culvert; culvert hydraulics; Washington
Department of Fish and Wildlife; Washington; United States; Washington
Department of Transportation; upstream passage of juvenile coho salmon;
juvenile coho salmon; coho salmon; salmon; coho fry; fingerling; fry;
coho fingerling; smooth pipe; rough pipe; low velocity boundary layer;
turbulence; hydrologic analysis; velocity; boundary layer; fish passage
test; fish passage; hydraulics; culvert
· Pyles, Marvin R.,
Skaugset, Arne E., and Warhol, Terry. 1989. Culvert design
and performance on forest roads. Implementing Techniques
for Successful Forest Operations. Annual Meeting, Council on Forest Engineering.
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. 82-87 pages .
Abstract: Culvert design requires consideration of hydraulics, hydrology,
fisheries, economics, and legal requirements. Surveys of culvert
installations in the Coast and Cascade Ranges of Oregon show that a majority
of culvert installations have adequate capacity to meet legal and reasonable
design standards. However, no common design standard was apparent,
and 15 to 25 percent of the culvert installations surveyed appeared unable
to meet Oregon Forest Practice Regulations as they were designed.
Further, reduced capacity due to inlet damage or partial plugging affected
about half of the culverts surveyed. Care in design should be taken
in the future to insure that culverts remain an available alternative
for stream crossings. (Author's abstract0
Keywords: stream-crossing;
low volume road; watershed; culvert; culvert hydraulics; culvert design;
hydraulics; hydrology; fishery; economics; legal requirement; culvert
installation; Oregon; Coast Range; Cascade Range; United States; Oregon
Forest Practice Regulation; partial plugging; inlet damage; reduced capacity;
forest road; culvert performance; road-stream crossing; culvert; regional
· Rooseboom, A.
1985. Practical culvert hydraulics: a South African perspective.
Papers presented at the 2nd international conference on the hydraulics
of floods & flood control. Cambridge, England. Cranfield,
England.
Abstract: Culverts and stormwater drains are common and relatively
costly items in street and road drainage. They are often designed by persons
who are not specialists in hydraulics. The result is that many of these
elements are improperly designed. This paper presents a flexible system
which has been developed for determining the design flood return period.
It also includes a simplified system for performing practical design calculations.
These calculations relate to culvert sizing, increasing the capacity of
culvert barrels, outlet velocities and erosion protection measures downstream.
(A) 4 refs
Keywords: hydraulics;
culvert design; road drainage; surface drainage; culvert; regional
· Saltzman, William
and Koski, R. O. 1971. Fish passage through culverts.
Salem, OR. Oregon State Game Comission.
Abstract: A series of culvert velocity curves has been developed by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Engineering Section of the Oregon
Game Commission. The curves predict water velocities encountered at different
water levels in round corrugated steel culverts from two to seven feet
in diameter and on gradients from 0.25 to 5.0 percent. Maximum allowable
velocities for fish passage are combined with the rating curves to give
design criteria for fish passage. Fish passage design criteria for other
methods of stream crossing techniques including pipe-arch culverts and
box- type concrete culverts are mentioned
Keywords: fish passage; culvert design; culvert fish passage; flow
velocity; fishway; stream crossing design; hydrology; culvert
· Simon, A. L. , Sarikelle,
S., and Korom, S. F. 1987. Internal energy dissipators
for culverts on steep slopes with inlet control. Transportation
Research Record. 1151:25-31.
Abstract: Results of a model study of internal energy dissipators
for culverts on a steep slope and operating under inlet control are discussed.
The shortest ring chamber design that effectively reduces the outlet velocity
is provided. Ring chamber diameters are expressed as a function of the
upstream Froude number. Spacing and dimensions of roughness elements are
related to ring chamber diameter. The model results are compared with
prototype performance and adjusted to improve their accuracy. Hydraulic
design parameters that affect the operation of such culverts are discussed,
and practical design procedures are given. (A). 10 Refs
Keywords: baffle;
steep slopes and road grades; culvert inlet; culvert design; culvert
· Stoeckeler, J. H.
1967. Size and placement of metal culverts critical on Peatland
Woods roads.
Abstract: Culverts too small in diameter or poorly placed were major
causes of timber flooding and tree damage. Placement problems were
poor culvert slope, poor hydraulic approach, lack of gravel bedding, and
too little soil covering the culverts. (Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert; culvert diameter; culvert design; timber flooding;
tree damage; culvert slope; culvert hydraulics; gravel bedding; culvert
size; culvert placement; metal culvert; road
· Tsihrintzis, Vassilios
A. 1993. Necessity of sediment transport calculations in
culvert design. Hydrologic and hydraulic methods committee
of the floodplain management association.: 22 pages.
Abstract: Sediment transport calculations are necessary when designing
road-crossing culverts in ephemeral alluvial streams. Significant
road and adjacent property flooding is possible due to culvert underdesign,
in cases where sediment transport is not taken into account, i.e., the
culvert is designed for clear water flow. In such cases, sediment
supplied to the culvert by the stream may reduce its capacity as a result
of sediment deposition within the culvert. In addition to flooding
problems, sediment deposition in a culvert is a continuous maintenance
problem for public agencies. Most times it is more economic to do
a complete sediment transport study before the project is built.
A complete case study is presented herein, where the actual capacity
of a culvert was found to be approximately 20% of the presumed design
capacity, as a result of sediment deposition not accounted in the design.
Analysis guidelines for proper culvert design are also presented.
(Author's abstract)
Keywords: culvert; culvert design; sediment transport; sediment transport
calculation; road-crossing culvert; ephemeral alluvial stream; stream;
road; flooding; sediment deposition; hydrology; hydraulics; floodplain
management; culvert; water quality
· Tsihrintzis, Vassilios
A. 1995. Effects of sediment on drainage-culvert serviceability.
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities. 9:172-183.
Abstract: The primary function of a drainage culvert--to
convey the design flow effectively--is often greatly impaired or completely
lost due to the presence of deposited sediments. The effect of sediments
on the total head loss within the culvert may be quite significant. A
case study is presented that describes the performance of a roadway drainage
culvert designed for clear- water flow conditions in an alluvial stream
carrying sediments. The actual capacity of the culvert is approximately
only 20% of the presumed design capacity, as a result of sediment deposition
not accounted for in the design. The case study reviews design errors
and demonstrates the necessity of sediment-transport calculations when
designing roadway drainage culverts in ephemeral alluvial streams. Ignoring
sediment transport may have adverse effects, including significant road
and adjacent-property flooding as well as continuous and costly maintenance
problems. It is more economical to undertake a complete sediment-transport
study before design than to deal with continuous maintenance after the
project is built. (A, 16 references)
Keywords: sedimentation;
drainage crossing; culvert design; flow capacity; culvert analysis;
culvert design; water quality; culvert
· Tung, Yeou-Koung and
Bao, Yixing. 1990. Optimal design of highway drainage structures.
Hydraulic engineering: Proceedings of the 1990 national conference,
part 1 (of 2). San Diego, CA. Boston, MA.
Abstract: Hydraulic design of a bridge or culvert using a risk-based
approach is to choose among the alternatives the one associated with the
least total expected cost. In this paper, the risk-based design procedure
is applied to pipe culvert design. The effect of the hydrologic uncertainties
such as sample size and type of distribution model on the optimal culvert
design parameters including design return period and total expected cost
are examined in this paper. (A) 7 Refs
Keywords: drainage
structure; drainage crossing; highway construction; risk analysis and
design; bridge design; culvert design; culvert; road; analysis and assessment
· United States Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1975. Making culverts good
fish passage. US Forest Service Equipment Development Center.
Equip. Tips.
Abstract: Briefly reviews fish passage factors at culverts including
water velocity, culvert length and gradient, fish species,
streambed conditions, and culvert design. References that
describe fish passage problems and solutions in detail are listed.
Keywords: fish; fish passage; culvert; water velocity; velocity; culvert
length; culvert gradient; fish species; streambed; streambed condtion;
culvert design; fish passage problem; fish passage solution; hydrology
· United States Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1976. Roadway drainage;
guide for installing culverts to accomodate fish. Juneau, Alaska.
Engineering and Aviation Management Division, Forest Service.
Equip. Tips.: 1-126 pages.
Abstract: The guide is designed as an aid to engineers, biologists,
and hydrologists to help solve the problem of providing fish
passages through drainage structures. Decreasing culvert gradients
to meet fish passage requirements (velocities less than 1.5 feet per
second) also significantly reduces culvert capacity, requiring larger
culverts, if designing for both fish passage and design flows.
Minimum flows for fish passage are based on the 5-year recurrence.
Data requirements for drainage types define information needs. Aids
to the design procedure include survey forms, a method for risk assessement,
procedures for calculating design flows for southeast Alaska,
hydraulic charts and culvert design methods.Administrative
Document.
Keywords: culvert; biologist; engineering; hydrology; fish passage;
drainage; drainage structure; culvert gradient; fish passage requirement;
culvert capacity; design flow; flow; minimum flow; 5-year recurrence interval;
Alaska; United States; hydraulic chart; culvert design; hydrology; regional;
analysis and assessment
· United States Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1978. Fish/culvert roadway
drainage guide. USDA, Forest Service. Draft.:
1-125 pages.
Abstract: The guide is designed as an aid to engineers, biologists,
and hydrologist to help solve the problem of providing fish
passages through drainage structures. Decreasing culvert gradients
to meet fish passage requirements (velocities less than 1.5 feet per
second) also significantly reduces culvert capacity, requiring larger
culverts, if designing for both fish passage and design flows.
Minimum flows for fish passage are based on the 5-year recurrence
interval. Data requirements for drainage types define information
needs. Aids to the design procedure include survey forms, a method for
risk assessment, procedures for calculating design flows for
southeast Alaska, hydraulic charts, and culvert design methods.
Keywords: guide; engineering; biologist; hydrologist; fish passage;
fish passage requirement; culvert gradient; drainage; 5-year recurrence
interval; Alaska; United States; hydraulic chart; culvert design; culvert;
hydrology; regional
· United States Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1979. Roadway drainage
guide for installing culverts to accomodate fish. Juneau, Alaska.
Engineering and Aviation Management Division.
Abstract: The guide is designed as an aid to engineers, biologists,
and hydrologists to help solve the problem of providing fish
passages through drainage structures. Decreasing culvert gradients
to meet fish passage requirements (velocities less than 1.5 feet per
second) also significantly reduces culvert capacity, requiring larger
culverts, if designing for both fish passage and design flows.
Minimum flows for fish passage are based on the 5-year recurrence.
Data requirements for drainage types define information needs. Aids
to the design procedure include survey forms, a method for risk assessement,
procedures for caluculating design flows for southeast Alaska,
hydraulic charts and culvert design methods. (Administrative
document)
Keywords: fish passage; drainage structure; culvert gradient; 5-year
recurrence; hydraulic charts; culvert design; fish capabilities; bridge;
open-bottom arch; baffle; design flow; velocity; round-pipe arch metal
culvert; culvert hydraulics; regional; hydraulics; culvert; hydrology
· United States Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration and U.S.Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 1996. Fish passage through
culverts. Video Recording. San Dimas, CA. USDA Forest
Service, Technology Development Center.
Abstract: This video explains how a hydrologist, a fish biologist,
and an engineer all play a crucial role in the designing of a roadway
over a stream. It describes the types of culverts and some factors to
look for in deciding the type to use. The video gives the advantages and
disadvantages to both fish and engineers if the culvert is not maintained.
The video is appropriate for all engineering and maintenance staff. See
Baker and Votapka (1990) for a companion publication. (C)
Keywords: fish passage; road design and construction; drainage crossing;
culvert design; road; culvert
· Washington Department
of Fish and Wildlife. 1999. Fish passage design at road
culverts: a design manual for fish passage at road crossings.
Abstract: This manual is for the design of permanent new, retrofit,
or replacement road crossing culverts that will not block the migration
of salmonids. The manual is intended for use by designers of culverts
including private landowners and engineers. The level of expertise necessary
to use this manual varies depending on site conditions and the design
option selected. For all but the no-slope design option (described below),
it is assumed that the designer has a basic background of hydraulic engineering,
hydrology, and soils/structural engineering to accomplish an appropriate
design. Formal fishways may be required at some culvert
sites to provide passage. The design of fishways is beyond the scope of
this manual though there is a brief description of some basic design concepts
included here. A fish passage engineer should be consulted for additional
assistance for the design of fishways. The organization
of the manual follows the logical steps expected in a prudent culvert
design. A data form is provided in Appendix F describing the data
needed for the design and for those evaluating the design. For explanations
and definitions of terms describing the channel, hydrology and data requirements
see the Explanation of Data also in Appendix F. Several case studies
showing various culvert design options are described in Appendix G.
The manual is based on the premise that a culvert is the desired road
crossing option at a site. That does not mean that for fish traffic, fish
passage or other ecological functions, a culvert is the actually best
solution or even permitted. Though this manual focuses on fish passage,
there are other habitat and ecological considerations that are factors
in the siting and design of road crossing structures. Those considerations
are outlined in the section Other Passage and Habitat Considerations.
This manual does not provide guidance about the inventory of culverts
or the prioritization of culvert barrier remedies. That information is
included in Fish Passage Barrier Assessment and Prioritization
Manual, 1998 by WDFW. (Author's introduction)
Keywords: fish passage; fish passage design; habitat; hydraulics; engineering;
hydrology; culvert; retrofitting; salmonid; salmonid migration; fishway;
manual; barrier; road crossing structure; road; culvert design
· White, D. 1996.
Hydraulic performance of countersunk culverts in Oregon.
Master of Science thesis. Oregon State University. 95 pages.
Abstract: Countersunk culverts have long been recommended as crossing
structures where fish passage is desired. This project provides
design and performance information on existing countersunk
culverts in Oregon. Twenty-eight countersunk culverts were
surveyed for three issues: assessment of the ability of countersunk culverts
to provided for passage of target species and age groups;
evaluation of the stabily of the countersunk configuration;
and derivation and critical analysis of a method of predicting the extent
of low velocity zones within the flow cross-section. A qualitative
assessment of each site conducted in 1995 was followed up
by a reassessment of culvert condtions after a large 20 year
storm event in 1996. All twenty-eight culverts resisted erosion and effectivly
carried high discharges as determined from survey data. Detailed documentation
of water velocity distributions in several culverts under
fall and winter discharges showed the presence of zones of
velocity of a mangitude currently acceptable in the literature as
passable by juvenile salmonids. Results of the velocity data analysis
suggest that the extent of low velocity zones, or perhaps
the lower limit of their extent, in the channel cross-sections
of countersunk cluvert with small scale rougness may be predicatble using
common paramenters such as cross-sectional area and hydraulic depth.
Recommendations based on the study are: the use of multiple, parallel
culverts in place of a larger single culvert is discouraged
except in special cases; countersink a culvert to allow for
natural downstream transport of sediment; the culvert barrel shoud be
placed as coincident with the direction of the incident streamflow
as possible; and unless mitering is necessary to enhance the
conveyance capacity of the culvert, the inlet should not be
mitered.
Keywords: culvert; countersunk culvert; Oregon; United States; fish
passage; culvert passage; discharge; 20-year storm event; storm; sediment;
parallel culvert; multiple culverts; culvert inlet; velocity; juvenile
salmonid; erosion; low velocity zone; hydraulics
· Wightman, J. C. and
Taylor, G. D. 1976. Salmonid swimming performance in relation
to passage through culverts. Victoria, British Columbia.
Fish Habitat Improvement Section, Fish and Wildlife Branch, Ministry of
Recreation and Conservation.: 53 pages.
Abstract: In order to establish standards for culvert design and installation
to ensure fish passage, a review of existing literature on
fish swimming performance in culverts and in conditions resembling
those in culverts was undertaken. Measured swimming abilities
of game (mainly salmonids) and non-game fish species were
taken from many sources. Swimming capabilities at different life-history
stages, under various physical and chemical conditions were
documented. Under proper stimulus (undefined) adult salmon
and steelhead (length 25-30 inches or 63.5-76.2 cm) have traveled
distances up to 100 feet (30.5 m) against water velocities near 27 fps
(820 cm/sec). Normally adult salmon and large trout are capable
of negotiating velocities of 12 fps (370 cm/sec) over shorter
distances (20 ft or 6.1 m). To ensure fish passage through
a culvert water velocities should be much less than the sustained swimming
speed of upstreaming fish for a reasonable length of time.
For salmonid under-yearlings this would definitely be less
than 1 fps (30 cm/sec) and nearer 0.5 fps (15 cm/sec). Some other
important factors affecting swimming performance include water temperature,
dissolved oxygen content and degree of previous exertion.
Poor design and /or installation of culverts can bring about problems
of fish passage. One poorly placed culvert could detrimentally
affect fish populations of an entire drainage. Accepted parameters
governing successful fish passage are water velocity and depth
through the culvert, length and slope of the culvert, entrance and exit
conditions (e.g. jumping pool), and size species and sexual
maturation of fish using the stream. Some methods frequently
employed to alleviate passage problems at culverts include baffles,
downstream controls and multiple installations. (based on Author's abstract)
Keywords: countersunk culvert; culvert; swimming ability; salmonid;
habitat; salmonid swimming performance; swimming performance; fish passage;
culvert passage; culvert design; culvert installation; fish habitat improvement;
physical condition; chemical condition; non-game fish species; life-history
stage; steelhead; salmon; under-yearlings; water temperature; dissolved
oxygen content; exertion; water velocity; depth; length; slope; sexual
maturation; passage problem; baffle; downstream control; multiple installations;
locomotion; culvert
· Williams, T. T.
1971. Drainage correlation research report, volumes I and II.
Montana State Highway Commission, Planning Survey Section.
Abstract: An important problem in highway design is that of determining
flow capacities for drainage structures including culverts. Culvert installations
ordinarily are used where the discharge originates from small watersheds
of a few acres or a few square miles. The determination of peak discharge
magnitudes and corresponding return frequency intervals is essential to
economical engineering design. A comprehensive study of peak flows from
small watersheds (1 to 100 square miles) was undertaken in 1963 to determine
if existing precipitation and climatological data could be used to predict
the frequency of flood magnitudes on small watersheds in Montana. Phase
one of the study focused on existing precipitation data to determine what
correlation exists between such data and peak flows from small watersheds
and included a review of various methods currently in use for the prediction
of peak flows and frequencies. Phase two undertook to extend the usefulness
of the U.S. Geological Survey 'Small-Area Peak-Flow-Highway Program by
a comprehensive study of four widely separated watersheds. Included in
the study were soils, infiltration, precipitation, and watershed characteristics.
A review of current hydrologic techniques and watershed data appears in
Volume II
Keywords: road design and construction; flow capacity; drainage; culvert
design; culvert installation; research; road; culvert
· Ziemer, G. L.
1965. Culvert design. Alaska Dep. Fish and Game.:
2 pages
Abstract: Standards for design and placement of culverts in salmon
streams are presented; a graph shows swimming capability of migrating
salmon related to the horizontal distance between resting pools and the
velocity of the water in the culvert.
Keywords: culvert design; culvert; culvert placement; culvert design
criteria; swimming capability; migratory salmon; swimming capability
of migrating salmon; salmon; horizontal distance; resting pool; water
velocity; culvert hydraulics; hydrology; locomotion